This study was aiming at the differences in the aroma, flavor compounds, and bioactivities of essential oil of Coreopsis tinctoria flower (CTFEO) and essential oil of Chrysanthemum morifolium flower (CMFEO). Both essential oils were extracted by steam distillation. Their flavor compositions were determined by GC-MS and the antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory activities were also evaluated. It was found that CTFEO possessed a special medicinal herb odor, which was obviously stronger than those of CMFEO. A preferred condition for steam distillation was flower powder–water ratio of 7.5:100 and extraction for more than 3.0 h. Interestingly, the main flavor compounds of CTFEO were determined as D-limonene (34.54%), cis-carveol (5.49%), trans-α-bergamotene (4.44%), and α-pinene (3.90%), which were quite different from those of CMFEO. CTFEO showed better antioxidant activities with IC50 value of 121.4 ± 9.8 μg/mL than those of CMFEO. It also exhibited stronger antibacterial effects than those of CMFEO, with minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) ranging from 0.183 to 1.412 mg/mL against six strains of bacteria. Moreover, CTFEO was also found to exhibit strong anti-inflammatory effects that reduced the LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cell mRNA expression of the cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α at a concentration of 10.0 μg/mL. All these results suggest that the aroma, flavor compounds, and bioactivities of the two essential oils were quite different and they could be used as tea, drink, and food additive in the food industry for further development.
Keywords: Coreopsis tinctoria; Chrysanthemum morifolium; essential oil; flavor compounds; anti-inflammatory activities
Coreopsis tinctoria Nutt., belonging to the Asteraceae family, is a kind of small annual herb distributed worldwide.[[
As a special kind of tea, food supplement, and ethnic medicine, the essential oil of this plant plays an important role in its flavor and pharmacologic function. It has been known that the essential oils of C. tinctoria flower (CTFEO) and Chrysanthemum morifolium flower (CMFEO) exhibit multiple bioactivities like antimicrobial, antioxidant, N-nitrosamine inhibition, and memory improvement.[[
ABTS (2,2-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl), and analytical grade of solvent (CH
The dry flowers of Coreopsis tinctoria Nutt. and Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. were collected from the Karakorum Mountains (Xinjiang province) and Hangzhou (Zhejiang province), respectively. Two voucher specimens were kept in the Key Biotechnology Laboratory of Zhengzhou University of Light Industry. The dry flowers were smashed and sieved using a 40-mesh sieve (pore size 0.42 mm).
Using Clevenger-type apparatus, the essential oils of two flowers were extracted by hydrodistillation for 1.0–4.0 h.[[
The optimization of flower powder–water ratio was carried out using the powder of C. tinctoria flowers. The powders (37.5 g, 75.0 g, 112.5 g, and 150.0 g) were added along with 1500 mL of water in four 2000 mL of round-bottomed flasks, respectively. Then, the hydrodistillation was performed for 4.0 h. The weights of essential oils were recorded and the yields were calculated.
The powders (75.0 g and 112.5 g) were added along with 1500 mL of water in eight 2000 mL of round-bottomed flasks. Afterward, the hydrodistillation was stopped at 1.0 h, 2.0 h, 3.0 h, and 4.0 h, respectively. The weights of essential oils were recorded and the yields were calculated.
The essential oils were diluted with CH
For the ABTS assays, equal volume of Na
For the DPPH assays, DPPH powders were dissolved in ethanol to the concentration of 0.25 mM, and essential oils were prepared to the concentrations above. Then, 100 μL of essential oil solutions and 100 μL of DPPH solutions were added to the 96-well plates, which were further reacted in the darkness for 30 minutes. OD values were further measured at 517 nm. Scavenging rates were determined as: scavenging rate (%) = (1–A
A total of six strains of bacteria were used for the antibacterial assays on the basis of broth microdilution method, namely Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853 (gram-negative), Klebsiella Pneumoniae (gram-negative), Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 (gram-negative), Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923 (gram-positive), Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212 (gram-positive), and Bacillus subtilis ATCC 6633 (gram-positive).[[
The inhibition on the RAW 264.7 cell mRNA expression of cytokines IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6 was determined on the basis of previous method with some modifications.[[
All the measurements were performed in triplicate, and the results were expressed as mean values ± SD (standard deviations). The differences between individual results were considered as significant when P <.05. The ANOVA (one-way analysis of variance) test was carried out by STATISTICA and GraphPad Prism.
The color of CTFEO was orange, which was obviously darker than that of CMFEO (light yellow-green). The result was in accordance with the color of two flowers. The density of CTFEO and CMFEO was 0.8615 and 0.8542 g/mL, respectively. Through aroma analysis, it indicated that two essential oils mainly possessed floral, medicinal herb, oil, cool, freshness, and sweet smell (Figure 1). Interestingly, CTFEO exhibited a characteristic medicinal herb odor, which was obviously stronger than that of CMFEO. On the other hand, CMFEO felt cooler and more oiliness. Besides, the floral, freshness, and sweet aromas of the two essential oils were alike.
MAP: Figure 1. Aroma radar map of two essential oils.
The optimization of flower powder–water ratio was carried out using the flower powder of C. tinctoria. As shown in Table 1, the flower powder–water ratio of 7.5:100 gave highest yield rate. The yield rate would decrease when the flower powder–water ratio was more than 7.5:100.
Table 1. Optimization of the flower powder–water ratio.
Weight of flower powder (g) Flower powder––water ratio Yield of essential oil (g) Yield rate of essential oil (%, g/g) 37.5 2.5:100 0.09 0.24 75.0 5.0:100 0.27 0.36 112.5 7.5:100 0.43 0.38 150.0 10.0:100 0.44 0.29
The hydrodistillation time was optimized using the flower powder-water ratios of 5.0:100 and 7.5:100. The hydrodistillation was stopped at 1.0 h, 2.0 h, 3.0 h, and 4.0 h, and the yielded essential oils were weighted. It was found that the yields of the essential oils increased from time beginning to 3.0 h. After 3.0 h, the yields were no longer increased but the color of essential oils could be slightly enhanced (Table 2). Thus, a proper hydrodistillation time was suggested as more than 3.0 h.
Table 2. Optimization of the hydrodistillation time.
Flower powder–water ratio Time (h)/Yield of essential oil (g) 1.0 h 2.0 h 3.0 h 4.0 h 5.0:100 0.20 0.26 0.27 0.27 7.5:100 0.31 0.39 0.43 0.43
Overall, a total of 161 chemical compositions were identified from two essential oils, and 93 and 92 kinds of flavor compounds were determined from CTFEO and CMFEO, respectively (Table 3). Among them, 25 kinds of flavor compounds were both found in CTFEO and CMFEO. Terpenes were revealed as the main compositions in two essential oils (both 45 kinds), which accounted for more than 65% of the whole compounds (Figure 2). The following were alcohols (CTFEO, 15 kinds; CMFEO, 18 kinds) and ketones (CTFEO, 14 kinds; CMFEO, 11 kinds).
PHOTO (COLOR): Figure 2. Relative contents of chemical compositions of CTFEO and CMFEO.
Table 3. Chemical composition of CTFEO and CMFEO identified by GC-MS (100%).
Type No. Flavor compounds CTFEO CMFEO Terpene 1 8.20 α-pinene 3.8967 – 2 8.51 2,2-dimethyl-3-methylene-(1S)-bicyclo[2.2.1]heptane 0.6356 – 3 8.79 4-methyl-1-(1-methylethyl)-bicyclo[3.1.0]hex-2-ene – 0.3904 4 8.89 2-methyl-5-(1-methylethyl)-bicyclo[3.1.0]hex-2-ene 1.1208 0.0837 5 8.94 (1S)-2,6,6-trimethylbicyclo[3.1.1]hept-2-ene – 0.2932 6 9.16 4-methylene-1-(1-methylethyl)-bicyclo[3.1.0]hex-2-ene 0.1810 0.7127 7 9.39 β-myrcene 1.5651 – 8 9.73 4-methylene-1-(1-methylethyl)-bicyclo[3.1.0]hexane 0.4525 0.0465 9 9.82 β-pinene 0.4525 0.0576 10 9.89 2-carene 0.1800 11 10.06 2,3-dehydro-1,8-cineole – 0.1973 12 10.28 trans-β-ocimene 0.8490 – 13 10.37 α-phellandrene – 0.1538 14 10.57 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)-1,3-cyclohexadiene – 0.1786 15 10.80 D-limonene 34.5437 1.2903 16 10.89 1,2-cyclononadiene 0.1038 – 17 11.17 trans-2-caren-4-ol – 0.2584 18 11.30 γ-terpinene 0.3643 0.2693 19 11.38 3-(4-methyl-3-pentenyl)-furan 0.2795 – 20 11.57 1,3,8-p-menthatriene 0.2863 – 21 11.89 4-acetyl-1-methylcyclohexene 0.3031 – 22 12.00 trans-limonene oxide 0.4598 – 23 12.20 3-methylenecyclohexene 0.3250 – 24 12.25 1-(1,4-dimethyl-3-cyclohexen-1-yl)-ethanone – 0.3843 25 12.33 2,6-dimethyl-2,4,6-octatriene – 0.2310 26 12.88 (+)-2-bornanone 0.8255 27 13.33 endo-borneol 0.1870 28 14.59 ethyl-tetramethyl-cyclopentadiene 0.1190 – 29 14.85 silphiperfol-5-ene 0.3441 – 30 14.95 (1 R,2S,7 R,8 R)-2,6,6,9-tetramethyl-tricyclo[5.4.0.0(2,8)]undec-9-ene 0.3171 – 31 15.12 7-epi-silphiperfol-5-ene 3.2089 – 32 15.29 silphiperfola-4,7(14)-diene 0.4974 – 33 15.59 1,5,5-trimethyl-6-methylene-cyclohexene – 0.3405 34 15.63 modephene 0.8197 – 35 15.73 (1 R,3aS,5aS,8aR)-1,3a,4,5a-tetramethyl-1,2,3,3a,5a,6,7,8-octahydrocyclopenta[c]pentalene 0.5317 – 36 15.90 2,4,5,6,7,8-hexahydro-1,4,9,9-tetramethyl-[3aR-(3aα,4β,7α)]-3 H-3a,7-methanoazulene 0.2622 – 37 16.01 (–)-3,7,7-trimethyl-11-methylene-spiro[5.5]undec-2-ene 0.2765 – 38 16.13 ylangene – 0.1165 39 16.22 copaene – 0.2274 40 16.29 1a,2,3,5,6,7,7a,7b-octahydro-1,1,7,7a-tetramethyl-[1aR-(1aα,7α,7aα,7bβ)]-1 H-cyclopropa[a]naphthalene – 0.5799 41 16.30 trans-α-bergamotene 4.4457 – 42 16.56 (–)-β-elemene – 8.8754 43 16.63 1,5,9,9-tetramethyl-Z,Z,Z-1,4,7,-cycloundecatriene 0.2754 – 44 16.76 2-isopropyl-5-methyl-9-methylene-bicyclo[4.4.0]dec-1-ene 0.5552 – 45 16.80 [3 R-(3α,3aβ,7β,8aα)]-2,3,4,7,8,8a-hexahydro-3,6,8,8-tetramethyl-1 H-3a,7-methanoazulene – 3.3848 46 16.92 [1aR-(1aα,4α,4aβ,7bα)]-1a,2,3,4,4a,5,6,7b-octahydro-1,1,4,7-tetramethyl-1 H-cycloprop[e]azulene 0.2426 – 47 17.00 1,2,4a,5,6,8a-hexahydro-4,7-dimethyl-1-(1-methylethyl)-naphthalene – 3.0108 48 17.03 caryophyllene 0.6908 1.3146 49 17.04 (3 R,3aR,7 R,8aS)-3,8,8-trimethyl-6-methyleneoctahydro-1 H-3a,7-methanoazulene 2.1503 – 50 17.30 germacrene D 0.1402 – 51 17.38 β-bisabolene 0.2433 – 52 17.46 cis-β-farnesene – 5.5262 53 17.55 alloaromadendrene – 1.6506 54 17.67 1-isopropyl-4,7-dimethyl-1,2,3,5,6,8a-hexahydronaphthalene 0.2557 – 55 17.88 β-guaiene – 0.7939 56 18.06 α-calacorene 0.1164 – 57 18.11 1-(1,5-dimethyl-4-hexenyl)-4-methyl-benzene 1.3239 3.924 58 18.18 (4aR,8aS)-4a-methyl-1-methylene-7-(propan-2-ylidene)decahydronaphthalene – 5.2308 59 18.36 (4aS-cis)-2,4a,5,6,7,8,9,9a-octahydro-3,5,5-trimethyl-9-methylene-1 H-benzocycloheptene – 1.1731 60 18.40 (Z)-1-methyl-4-(6-methylhept-5-en-2-ylidene)cyclohex-1-ene – 0.8199 61 18.49 (3S,3aS,8aR)-6,8a-dimethyl-3-(prop-1-en-2-yl)-1,2,3,3a,4,5,8,8a-octahydroazulene 2.8263 62 18.67 10S,11S-himachala-3(12),4-diene 0.0550 1.3359 63 18.93 caryophyllene oxide 1.2341 – 64 18.97 (–)-β-sesquiphellandrene – 5.8797 65 19.12 4-[(1E)-1,5-dimethyl-1,4-hexadien-1-yl]-1-methyl-cyclohexene – 0.2846 66 19.51 ledene oxide 0.7053 – 67 19.74 [1 R-(1α,7β,8aα)]-1,2,3,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydro-1,8a-dimethyl-7-(1-methylethenyl)-naphthalene 0.2665 – 68 19.94 1,5-epoxysalvial-4-ene 0.1666 0.1603 69 20.46 (1α,3aα,7α,8aβ)-2,3,6,7,8,8a-hexahydro-1,4,9,9-tetramethyl-1 H-3a,7-methanoazulene – 2.9351 70 20.47 longifolene 0.1691 – 71 20.96 2-ethenyl-1,3,3-trimethyl-cyclohexene 0.1117 – 72 21.21 7-epi-cis-sesquisabinene hydrate 0.1763 – 73 21.61 [2 R-(2α,4aα,8aβ)]-1,2,3,4,4a,5,6,8a-octahydro-4a,8-dimethyl-2-(1-methylethenyl)-naphthalene – 0.2160 74 22.13 β-humulene – 1.5262 75 22.34 aromandendrene – 0.9222 76 22.77 (+)-ledene – 5.5309 77 23.44 5-ethylidene-1-methyl-cycloheptene – 0.3683 78 24.04 isoaromadendrene epoxide 0.0906 0.2379 79 24.56 dehydrochamazulene – 0.1412 80 25.96 (E)-2-(hepta-2,4-diyn-1-ylidene)-1,6-dioxaspiro[4.4]non-3-ene – 1.5787 Subtotal 65.3375 66.4713 Alcohol 81 10.88 eucalyptol – 0.3417 82 11.72 trans-1-methyl-4-(1-methylethenyl)-2-cyclohexen-1-ol 2.0223 – 83 12.12 2-caren-4-ol 0.3701 – 84 12.77 [1S-(1α,3α,5α)]-6,6-dimethyl-2-methylene-bicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-ol 0.3233 0.1649 85 12.80 trans-p-mentha-1(7),8-dien-2-ol 1.4716 – 86 12.88 (+)-2-bornanone – 0.8255 87 13.00 (–)-cis-isopiperitenol 2.7212 – 88 13.16 (1S)-4,6,6-trimethyl-bicyclo[3.1.1]hept-3-en-2-one 0.1043 – 89 13.33 endo-borneol – 0.1870 90 13.43 terpinen-4-ol 1.1914 0.9568 91 13.54 (–)-myrtenol – 0.0506 92 13.63 α-terpineol – 0.774 93 13.80 trans-shisool – 0.1528 94 13.93 cis-carveol 5.4920 0.0382 95 14.25 (1α,3α,5α)-4-methylene-1-(1-methylethyl)-bicyclo[3.1.0]hexan-3-ol 0.1856 0.0158 96 14.33 p-mentha-1,8-dien-7-ol 0.3126 – 97 15.52 4-(1-methylethyl)-1,4-cyclohexadiene-1-methanol – 0.0686 98 17.63 levomenol 0.1144 1.4491 99 18.79 [1aR-(1aα,4aα,7β,7aβ,7bα)]-decahydro-1,1,7-trimethyl-4-methylene-1 H-cycloprop[e]azulen-7-ol 0.1553 – 100 19.43 phytol 0.0514 0.4794 101 19.57 2-methyl-5-(1-methylethenyl)-cyclohexanol – 1.1265 102 20.30 2-[(2 R,4aR,8aR)-4a,8-dimethyl-1,2,3,4,4a,5,6,8a-octahydronaphthalen-2-yl]prop-2-en-1-ol – 2.0703 103 20.58 (Z)-1,3,3-trimethyl-2-(3-methyl-2-methylene-3-butenylidene)-cyclohexanol 0.4708 – 104 21.38 humulenol-II – 0.4142 105 21.52 [(4aS,8S,8aR)-8-isopropyl-5-methyl-3,4,4a,7,8,8a-hexahydronaphthalen-2-yl]methanol 0.4124 – 106 23.70 6-isopropenyl-4,8a-dimethyl-1,2,3,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydro-naphthalen-2-ol – 2.6504 107 26.97 2-naphthaleneethanol – 0.1365 Subtotal 15.3987 11.9023 Alkane 108 15.91 1,1,7,7a-tetramethyl-1a,2,6,7,7a,7b-hexahydro-1 H-cyclopropa[a]naphthalene – 0.2476 109 16.52 (1S,5S,6 R)-6-methyl-2-methylene-6-(4-methylpent-3-en-1-yl)bicyclo[3.1.1]heptane 0.1695 – 110 17.14 (1 R,2S,6S,7S,8S)-8-isopropyl-1-methyl-3-methylenetricyclo[4.4.0.02,7]decane – 1.5211 111 19.36 icosa-9,11-diyne 0.2755 – 112 20.08 5-heptene-1,3-diyn-1-yl-benzene 1.6746 – 113 27.40 eicosane 0.1157 – Subtotal 2.2353 1.7687 Aldehyde 114 11.81 α-campholenal 0.3509 – 115 14.12 4-(1-methylethenyl)-1-cyclohexene-1-carboxaldehyde 0.5230 – 116 14.30 4-(1-methylethyl)-benzaldehyde 0.2855 0.1106 117 15.35 (E,E)-2,4-decadienal – 0.1857 118 21.11 longifolenaldehyde – 1.6947 Subtotal 1.1594 1.9910 Phenol 119 14.48 thymol 0.5896 – 120 14.92 2-methyl-5-(1-methylethyl)-phenol – 0.3210 121 14.95 3-methyl-4-isopropylphenol – 0.9255 122 15.18 2,3,4,6-tetramethyl-phenol – 0.1211 123 24.36 valerenol – 0.2784 Subtotal 0.5896 1.6460 Ketone 124 9.95 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one – 0.4790 125 12.35 5-(1-methylethyl)-bicyclo[3.1.0]hexan-2-one 0.1472 – 126 12.39 2,6,6-trimethyl-bicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-one 0.1087 – 127 12.56 2,2,5,5-tetramethyl-3-cyclopenten-1-one 0.2506 – 128 12.95 sabinone – 0.3247 129 12.96 trans-2-methyl-5-(1-methylethenyl)-cyclohexanone 0.8743 – 130 13.09 pinocarvone 0.1286 0.1107 131 13.22 4-methyl-1-(1-methylethyl)-bicyclo[3.1.0]hex-3-en-2-one 0.1797 2.1811 132 13.67 D-carvone 2.8879 – 133 13.72 2-methylene-5-(1-methylethyl)-cyclohexanone 0.2959 – 134 16.48 (E)-6,10-dimethyl-5,9-undecadien-2-one 0.1763 – 135 19.82 silphiperfol-6-en-5-one 0.9018 – 136 20.65 salvial-4(14)-en-1-one 0.6828 0.7749 137 21.86 acorenone B – 1.0348 138 23.23 4-(1,5-dimethylhex-4-enyl)cyclohex-2-enone – 0.9727 139 24.13 7-isopropenyl-1,4a-dimethyl-4,4a,5,6,7,8-hexahydro-3 H-naphthalen-2-one – 0.2331 140 24.2 4-(2,6,6-trimethyl-1-cyclohexen-1-yl)-3-buten-2-one – 0.2840 141 25.17 6,10,14-trimethyl-2-pentadecanone 0.1472 0.1926 142 28.43 (Z)-18-octadec-9-enolide 0.1179 0.0079 143 31.45 heptacosane-4,6-dione 0.1255 – Subtotal 7.0244 6.5955 Acid 144 14.26 acetic acid-1,7,7-trimethyl-bicyclo[2.2.1]hept-2-yl ester 0.9651 – 145 18.26 dodecanoic acid 0.5095 – 146 23.59 3-(2-isopropyl-5-methylphenyl)-2-methylpropionic acid – 1.0217 147 29.13 n-hexadecanoic acid 0.1455 – 148 30.89 sorbic acid 0.1667 – Subtotal 1.7868 1.0217 Ester 149 14.10 n-valeric acid cis-3-hexenyl ester – 0.1282 150 14.79 5-methyl-2-(1-methylethenyl)-4-hexen-1-ol acetate – 0.2059 151 15.44 myrtenyl acetate – 0.1292 152 19.16 fumaric acid butyl myrtenyl ester – 0.2715 153 19.29 nonanoic acid phenylmethyl ester – 0.7074 154 24.35 3-methyl-butanoic acid-2-methoxy-4-(2-propenyl)phenyl ester 0.1282 – 155 27.66 (Z,Z)-9,12-octadecadienoic acid methyl ester 0.1062 0.0098 156 28.69 14-methyl-pentadecanoic acid methyl ester 0.1700 – Subtotal 0.4044 1.4520 Aromatic 157 7.32 p-xylene 0.1387 – 158 11.85 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethenyl)-benzene 0.4334 0.0574 159 13.82 N,N-dipropionylphenethylamine 1.3963 – 160 14.41 – 0.1871 161 18.71 1-ethyl-2,3-dimethyl-benzene 0.0941 – Subtotal 2.0625 0.2445
1 *–, not detected.
Interestingly, the main flavor compounds of CTFEO were D-limonene (34.54%), cis-carveol (5.49%), trans-α-bergamotene (4.44%), and α-pinene (3.90%), which might be associated with its floral and medicinal herb odor.[[
In the ABTS assays, CTFEO showed potent antioxidant activity with IC
It was known that essential oils possessed antibacterial activities and previous study suggested CTFEO could inhibit the growth of gram-negative Shigella sp. and E. coli.[[
Table 4. Antibacterial activities of CTFEO and CMFEO (mg/mL).
Components CTFEO 0.808 ± 0.055 1.412 ± 0.198 0.518 ± 0.081 0.520 ± 0.048 0.721 ± 0.058 0.183 ± 0.060 CMFEO 0.894 ± 0.072 2.227 ± 0.2512 1.427 ± 0.106 0.683 ± 0.085 0.807 ± 0.061 0.340 ± 0.051 Penicillin Gb 0.002 ± 0.0002 0.003 ± 0.0004 0.002 ± 0.0003 Streptomycinb 0.003 ± 0.0003 0.004 ± 0.0006 0.002 ± 0.0003
2
It is worth noting that CTFEO exhibited obvious anti-inflammatory effects that inhibited the LPS-induced mRNA expression of cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α of RAW 264.7 cells at the concentration of 10.0 μg/mL (Figure 3). Moreover, CTFEO showed the most powerful inhibition on the LPS-induced mRNA expression of IL-1β with the inhibition rate of 61.5%. CMFEO could also inhibit the LPS-induced mRNA expression of IL-1β but have no effects on the other two cytokines. Thus, the anti-inflammatory activities of the two essential oils were disclosed for the first time and CTFEO exhibited better effects than those of CMFEO.
PHOTO (COLOR): Figure 3. Inhibition on LPS-induced mRNA expression of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α of two essential oils at 10.0 μg/mL. ####p<.0001, in comparison with control group; **p <.01, in comparison with LPS group; ****p <.0001, in comparison with LPS group.
This study suggested that CTFEO possessed a special medicinal herb odor and the other aroma of the two essential oils were alike. A preferred condition for steam distillation was also established. The main flavor compounds especially the content of D-limonene in CTFEO were quite different from those of CMFEO. Moreover, the two essential oils exhibited obvious antioxidant and antibacterial activities, and their anti-inflammatory effects were also determined for the first time. Due to the special flavors and potent biological activities, the essential oils of two chrysanthemum flowers are promising in the application of tea, drink, food additive, and medicine for further development.
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
By Zhong-Rong Jiang; Ting Zhang; Ling-Bo Ji; Lei Wu; Hong-Hui Dong; Guo-Liang Zhao; Hong-Qian Shentu; Bao-Jiang He and Tian-Xiao Li
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