Nematode parasites infect approximately 1.5 billion people globally and are a significant public health concern. There is an accepted need for new, more effective anthelmintic drugs. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on parasite nerve and somatic muscle are targets of the cholinomimetic anthelmintics, while glutamate-gated chloride channels in the pharynx of the nematode are affected by the avermectins. Here we describe a novel nicotinic acetylcholine receptor on the nematode pharynx that is a potential new drug target. This homomeric receptor is comprised of five non-α EAT-2 subunits and is not sensitive to existing cholinomimetic anthelmintics. We found that EAT-18, a novel auxiliary subunit protein, is essential for functional expression of the receptor. EAT-18 directly interacts with the mature receptor, and different homologs alter the pharmacological properties. Thus we have described not only a novel potential drug target but also a new type of obligate auxiliary protein for nAChRs.
Author summary: Soil-transmitted helminths affect about a quarter of the worlds' population. Chemical anthelmintics not only alleviate the threat to human and animal health but also improve agricultural economics and food security. Here we have identified a "druggable" nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subunit, EAT-2, that constitutes the pharyngeal cholinergic receptor in nematodes. The receptor is required for feeding and possibly for reproductive behavior in worms. A selective therapeutic compound targeting this nAChR should either starve the worms or make them sluggish, helping with faster expulsion from the host. The EAT-2 pharyngeal nAChR is a unique receptor formed by five non-α subunits that lack vicinal cysteines in the ligand binding loop-C. To date, all cation selective nAChRs contain at least two α subunits. It is possible that EAT-2 subunits have retained functionality without the vicinal cysteines due to evolutionary modifications and expresses as a new nAChR subtype which doesn't fit the established dogma based on the study of vertebrate receptors. Our findings also identified a new type of auxiliary protein subunit, which is essential for functional expression of the pharyngeal nAChR and also modulates its pharmacology. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of an auxiliary protein that is essential for functional expression in any cys-loop ligand-gated ion channel.
Nematodes are multicellular organisms that exhibit diverse and complex physiological behaviors. These functions are controlled by a neuromuscular system that employs a large repertoire of highly regulated transporters, neurotransmitters, peptides and ion channels, which all contribute to homeostatic cell-cell communication [[
Nematode nAChRs, especially those found on somatic muscle, are targeted by the cholinergic anthelmintic drugs [[
All nAChR ion-channels are composed of five subunits forming a central ion-conducting pore and can be either homomeric (one α subunit) or heteromeric (multiple subunits with at least 2 α subunits). Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors from numerous organisms, including Caenorhabditis elegans, have been shown to interact with various chaperone or ancillary proteins such as RIC-3 (resistance to inhibitors of cholinesterase), UNC-50 (uncoordinated-50) and UNC-74 (uncoordinated-74). Ancillary proteins are required for correct folding, assembly of individual subunits into pentamers and trafficking of the mature nAChRs in a subtype dependent manner [[
In nematodes, the pharynx is a neuromuscular organ that undergoes rhythmic peristalsis to ingest food and is thus crucial for survival [[
C. elegans EAT-2 has the typical functional domains of a pentameric ligand-gated ion channel subunit: a large extracellular N-terminal domain of ~200 amino acids required for correct nAChR assembly and agonist binding; a cys-loop separated by 13 intervening amino acids; four transmembrane (TM) domains that form the ion-conducting pore; a cytoplasmic domain between TM3 and TM4 that is involved in modulation of channel activity and ion conductance; and a short extracellular C-terminus. EAT-2 is a non-α subunit as it lacks the pair of adjacent cysteine residues in loop-C required for agonist binding, still overall its sequence is most comparable to the human α-7 subunit with 55% similarity in amino acid residues (S1 Fig). Ligand binding occurs in a cleft formed by three loops (A, B, C) of the principal face of one α subunit and a series of beta strands from loops (D, E, F) of the complimentary interface of the adjacent subunit. All α subunits have either a YXCC or YXXCC motif in loop-C, and this motif was considered essential for ligand binding and modulating the affinity of the receptor binding site [[
Cel-EAT-18 is a small, single-pass transmembrane protein expressed in pharyngeal muscle and neurons with no vertebrate homologs [[
Initiation of the pharyngeal muscle action potential and the frequency of excitatory pharyngeal pumping are under the control of a pair of MC neurons that synapse on marginal cells in C. elegans. MC neurons release acetylcholine producing a fast depolarization of postsynaptic muscle membranes triggering an action potential. The MC neurons behave as a neurogenic pacemaker for rapid pharyngeal pumping. MC neurotransmission requires acetylcholine (ACh) and the nAChR subunit Cel-EAT-2, which is expressed in pharyngeal muscle [[
Graph: Fig 1 Pharmacological characterization of the Cel-EAT-2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes.(A) Current sizes (mean±S.E.M, %) produced in response to 100 μM ACh for various mixtures of Cel-EAT-18c & d and Cel-EAT-2. Black bar: Cel-EAT-2 with Cel-EAT-18c combination. Olive green bar: Cel-EAT-2 with Cel-EAT-18d combination. Black boxes indicate the presence of corresponding cRNA and empty boxes indicate the absence of cRNA in the mix. (B) Rank order series (expressed as mean±SEM, %, n≥6) for nAChR agonists and anthelmintics on Cel-EAT-2 and Cel-EAT-18c receptor when normalized to the control 100 μM ACh current: ACh > methacholine (methCho; 73.0±5.3) > nicotine (nic; 55.0±8.0) > butyrylcholine (butCho; 50.0±5.0) > carbachol (carCho; 37.0±3.4) > epibatidine (epi; 25.0±1.5) > oxantel (oxa; 11.0±1.3) >>> dimethylphenylpiperazine (DMPP; 0.0±0.0) = tribendimidine (tri; 0.0±0.0) = bephenium (bep; 0.0±0.0) = cytisine (cyt; 0.0±0.0) = lobeline (lob; 0.0±0.0) = levamisole (lev; 0.0±0.0) = SIB 1508Y (0.0±0.0) = -cotinine (-cot; 0.0±0.0) = nornicotine (nor; 0.0±0.0) = anabasine (ana; 0.0±0.0) = pyrantel (pyr; 0.0±0.0). (C) Sample traces for ACh, nicotine and carbachol concentration–response relationships for Cel-EAT-2 and Cel-EAT-18c nAChR. (D) Concentration-response plots of selected agonists (n≥6) for Cel-EAT-2 and Cel-EAT-18c nAChR. pEC50 (mean±SEM) and Hill slope (nH, mean±SEM) values were respectively: 4.8±0.0 and 1.9±0.3 for ACh; 4.2±0.1 and 2.4±0.4 for nic; 4.1±0.0 and 3.5±1.3 for methCho, 3.9±0.1 and 2.8±1.8 for butCho; 3.4±0.0 and 2.1±0.3 for carbCho. (E) Sample traces for ACh concentration–response relationships in the presence of 10 μM α-bungarotoxin (α-BTX), 30 μM DHβE (Dihydro-β-erythroidine) and 30 μM d-tubocurarine (d-TC) for Cel-EAT-2 and Cel-EAT-18c nAChR. (F) ACh concentration-response curves in the presence of α-BTX (n = 7), DHβE (n = 6) and d-TC (n = 6) for Cel-EAT-2 and Cel-EAT-18c nAChR. d-TC caused ≈98% reduction in the mean ACh response. α-BTX (pEC50 = 5.0±0.0 and Imax= 86.0±2.4%) and DHβE (pEC50 = 4.6±0.0 μM and Imax = 91.1±4.1%) failed to show any significant antagonistic effects on the response mediated by ACh.
To investigate the potential of EAT-2 as a drug target, we characterized the pharmacology of the nAChR using two-electrode voltage-clamp. Different cholinergic agonists and anthelmintic agents were tested on the heterologously expressed Cel-EAT-2 receptor. All agonists were used at 100 μM, except tribendimidine, which was tested at 30 μM (n ≥ 6 for all agonists). Methacholine was the most efficacious cholinergic agonist (I
To further investigate the receptor pharmacology, we examined the concentration-response relationships of selected agonists (Figs 1C, 1D and S3A). 100 μM ACh was used as the internal standard for normalization. Nicotine (pEC
To characterize the antagonist pharmacology, we tested the effects of five cholinergic antagonists on the expressed Cel-EAT-2 channel. The antagonists were -bungarotoxin (10 μM), derquantel (10 μM), paraherquamide (30 μM), d-tubocurarine (30 μM) and dihydro-β-erythroidine (30 μM, DHβE). Fig 1E and 1F (and S3B Fig) illustrate the effect of various antagonists on the ACh concentration-response relationship for Cel-EAT-2. d-Tubocurarine produced the most potent inhibition and almost completely blocked the response mediated by ACh (≈98% inhibition). Unlike many mammalian nAChRs, the sensitivity and efficacy of the receptor for ACh were not altered by either α-bungarotoxin or DHβE. The antagonist functional profile based on mean current (%) decrease of the control 100 μM ACh current response was: d-tubocurarine > paraherquamide > derquantel >>> -bungarotoxin ≈ DhβE. In conclusion, the pharmacology of the Cel-EAT-2 receptor is distinct from previously characterized nematode and vertebrate nAChRs [[
Although C. elegans is a powerful model, it is not a parasitic nematode of medical importance. In order to validate pharyngeal nicotinic acetylcholine ion channels as potential anthelmintic drug targets, it is crucial to identify and establish the presence and, in turn the pharmacology of such nAChRs in the pharynx of parasitic worms. We therefore characterized the pharmacology of the A. suum pharynx for comparison with the Cel-EAT-2 receptor. We employed the current-clamp technique to understand the pharmacology of the postsynaptic nAChR response. Application of 100 μM ACh on the pharyngeal preparation produced a large depolarization accompanied by an increase in membrane conductance. The ACh response was inhibited by mecamylamine, and the preparation showed negligible responses to several muscarinic agonists (S1 Data). This confirmed the presence of a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor in the pharynx of the parasite.
We next quantified the effects of selected nicotinic agonists to determine whether the pharyngeal nAChRs are pharmacologically distinct from those of somatic muscle. Our pharyngeal preparations in this group had a mean resting membrane potential of -21.3 ± 1.3 mV and a mean resting conductance (G) of 136.4 ± 14.9 μS (n = 17). The change in conductance (δG) responses to test applications of selected nicotinic agonists were normalized to the ACh δG. Nicotine was the most potent agonist after ACh with mean δG of 92.0 ± 6.2%. Cytisine also produced a large conductance change in the A. suum pharynx (mean δG = 71.2 ± 5.0). The rank order series for vertebrate nicotinic agonists on the A. suum pharynx was: ACh > nicotine > cytisine > epibatidine > DMPP >> choline (Fig 2A and S4A Fig). The rank order series of selected vertebrate nicotinic agonists on the pharynx is different from that of somatic muscle nAChRs and vertebrate host nAChRs (S1 Table). We also tested nine cholinergic anthelmintics on the pharynx to study their effect. Our pharyngeal preparations in these experiments had a mean resting membrane potential of -19.3 ± 1.1 mV and a mean resting conductance of 150.5 ± 11.9 μS (n = 21). The δG responses to test applications of selected cholinergic anthelmintic agents were normalized to the ACh δG. Fig 2A (S4A Fig) shows the rank order series on the A. suum pharynx: ACh >> bephenium > thenium > levamisole ≈ morantel ≈ pyrantel ≈ oxantel ≈ tribendimidine. In contrast to somatic muscle nAChRs, none of the cholinergic anthelmintics tested on the pharynx produced >7% of the ACh response (S1 Table).
Graph: Fig 2 Pharmacological characterization of nAChRs expressed in the pharynx of A. suum using the current clamp technique.(A) Functional profile of selected vertebrate nAChR agonists and cholinergic anthelmintics producing % change in membrane conductance (δG; expressed as mean±SEM,%, n≥4): ACh (100.0±0.0) > nicotine (nic; 92.0±6.2) > cytisine (cyt; 71.0±5.0) > epibatidine (epi; 31.0±3.0) > dimethylphenylpiperazine (DMPP; 12.0±2.9) > bephenium (bep; 7.2±3.5) > thenium (the; 6.1±1.5) > levamisole (lev; 1.8±0.61) > morantel (mor; 0.3±0.3) >> choline (cho; 0.0±0.0) = pyrantel (pyr; 0.0±0.0) = oxantel (oxa; 0.0±0.0) = tribendimidine (tri; 0.0±0.0). (B) Concentration-conductance curves for ACh and nicotine plotting % change in conductance vs log molar concentration of the drugs. pEC50 (mean±SEM) and Hill slope (nH, mean±SEM) values were respectively: 5.0±0.0 and 1.8±0.3 for ACh (n = 6) and 5.0±0.1 and 1.7±0.6 for nicotine (n = 8). (C) Concentration-conductance plots of ACh in the presence of nAChR antagonists: paraherquamide (para; 10μM), methyllycaconitine (MLA; 10μM), d-tubocurarine (d-TC; 10μM) and Dihydro-β-erythroidine (DHβE; 30μM). The pEC50 values were 5.0±0.1 in the presence of MLA (n = 8); 4.9±0.2 in the presence of d-TC (n = 3); 5.1±0.1 in the presence of para (n = 3) and 4.8±0.0 in the presence of DHβE (n = 7). The maximal response (δG) (mean±SE, μS) values were: 57.0±4.6 in the presence of MLA; 23.0±3.0 in the presence of d-TC; 87.7±5.7 in the presence of para; 89.7±3.0 in the presence of DHβE.
To further investigate the receptor, we used selected nicotinic antagonists (30μM) to study their inhibitory effects on 100μM ACh responses. Our pharyngeal preparations in this group had a mean resting membrane potential of -20.2 ± 1.1 mV and a mean resting conductance of 129.2 ± 6.8 μS (n = 34). The δG produced by a control application of ACh was set as 100%. We calculated the % inhibition of the δG response to ACh by nicotinic antagonists to determine a rank order series (mean ± SEM, S5 Fig and S6 Fig): d-tubocurarine > mecamylamine > methyllycaconitine > paraherquamide > derquantel > hexamethonium > DHβE. The functional spectrum of nicotinic receptor antagonists on the pharynx is distinct from that of vertebrate nAChRs (S1 Table).
We also determined concentration-response curves by plotting the concentration of agonists (1-1000μM, applied for 10s) against the response normalized to 100 μM ACh (applied for 10s) δG within each experiment. Fig 2B (S4B Fig and S4C Fig) shows the concentration-response curves for ACh and nicotine. The pEC
The pharmacological characterization of A. suum pharyngeal nAChRs revealed significant differences from the Cel-EAT-2 ion channel. In particular, cytisine which produced large depolarization in the A. suum pharynx, failed to activate Cel-EAT-2 ion channel. These pharmacological differences encouraged us to identify the subunits which constituted pharyngeal nAChRs in A. suum. We used Cel-EAT-2 and Cel-EAT-18 sequences as queries in BLASTP homology searches and identified homologs for EAT-2 and EAT-18 in the pig parasite. Comparison of Asu-EAT-2 with Cel-EAT-2 sequences revealed 80% similarity in amino acid composition, with differences among some of the ligand binding residues from various loops (S1 Fig). This suggested that the receptor channel could have different contact residues in the ligand binding pocket and possibly a different pharmacology. The proteins were expressed in vitro in Xenopus oocytes to recapitulate the pharyngeal ligand-gated cation channel. Unlike Cel-EAT-2 nAChRs, Asu-EAT-2 not only required Asu-EAT-18 but also Asu-RIC-3 for robust expression. However, the addition of Asu-UNC-50 and Asu-UNC-74 (I
We were interested in determining the comparative pharmacological profile of A. suum pharyngeal nAChRs and Asu-EAT-2 ion channel in order to establish the contribution of the non-α subunit in pharyngeal pharmacology. We used similar cholinergic agonists, anthelmintic agents, and antagonists as in vivo A. suum pharyngeal experiments on the expressed Asu-EAT-2 receptor. The rank order series of cholinergic agonists and anthelmintic agents based on maximum current response (Fig 3A and S7B Fig) for the receptor was: nicotine > ACh > cytisine > epibatidine > DMPP > oxantel. As with the A. suum pharynx, cholinomimetic anthelmintics such as bephenium, tribendimidine, levamisole, and pyrantel failed to activate the receptor. We also constructed a concentration-response curve for ACh and found it to be ≈ 9 times more potent on the Asu-EAT-2 nAChR compared to Cel-EAT-2 with a pEC
Graph: Fig 3 Effect of selected cholinergic agonists, anthelmintics and antagonists on the Asu-EAT-2 receptor expressed in Xenopus oocytes.(A) Functional profile (mean ± SEM, %, n≥5) of cholinergic agonists and anthelmintics when normalized to the control 100 μM ACh current: nicotine (nic; 105.0±5.7) ≈ ACh (100±0.0, n = 9) > cytisine (cyt; 81.0±5.2) > epibatidine (epi; 77.0±4.2) > dimethylphenylpiperazinium (DMPP; 6.6±1.9) > oxantel (oxa; 3.0±1.3) >>> bephenium (bep; 0.1±0.1, n = 9) > levamisole (lev; 0.0±0.0) = tribendimidine (tri; 0.0±0.0) = pyrantel (pyr; 0.0±0.0) = morantel (mor) = thenium (the; 0.0±0.0) = choline (cho; 0.0±0.0). (B) Comparison of concentration-response plots to ACh for the Cel-EAT-2 (black curve) and Asu-EAT-2 (maroon curve) receptor. pEC50 (mean ± SEM) and Hill slope (nH, mean ± SEM) values were respectively: 4.8 ± 0.0 and 1.9 ± 0.2 for Cel-EAT-2 (n = 9); 5.8 ± 0.1 and 3.5 ± 1.1 for Asu-EAT-2 (n = 6). (C) Functional profile (expressed as mean ± SEM, %, n = 6) of selected vertebrate nAChR antagonists (30 μM) based on inhibition of ACh (100 μM) mediated currents. d-Tubocurarine (d-TC; 97±1.0) and mecamylamine (mec; 95±1.1) almost completely blocked the ACh response. Mean current inhibition were 83.0±5.1 for hexamethonium (hex), 78.0±8.1 for methyllycaconitine (MLA), 72.0±3.4 for derquantel and 66±8.4 for DHβE (Dihydro-β-erythroidine). (D) Localization of Asu-eat-2 and Asu-eat-18 mRNA in different body tissues of the A. suum worm (n = 5). RT-PCR analysis of Asu-eat-2 (lanes 2, 5, 8, 11) and Asu-eat-18 (lanes 3, 6, 9, 12) and gapdh control (lanes 4, 7, 10, 13) in pharynx, ovijector, head, and gut region. The PCR product sizes for eat-2, eat-18 and gapdh were 949, 213 and 411 bp respectively. Lane 1, FastRuler High Range DNA ladder.
We tested the antagonistic effects of derquantel, mecamylamine, d-tubocurarine, DHβE, hexamethonium, and methyllycaconitine on the Asu-EAT-2 receptor. The mean % inhibition of the 100 μM ACh current response was used to determine the effect of the antagonists. Mecamylamine and d-tubocurarine produced almost 100% inhibition of the ACh currents, and DhβE was the least potent antagonist (inhibition, 66 ± 8.4%). The functional profile for the antagonists (Fig 3C and S7D Fig) was: d-tubocurarine ~ mecamylamine > hexamethonium > methyllycaconitine > deraquantel > DhβE. The rank order series of cholinomimetic anthelmintics, nicotinic agonists, and antagonists on the Asu-EAT-2 receptor differs from that of the A. suum somatic muscle nAChRs as well as the vertebrate nAChRs (S1 Table). In conclusion, the Asu-EAT-2 receptor has a distinct pharmacology and is, therefore, likely suitable to be exploited as a therapeutic target.
In C. elegans, EAT-2 expression is restricted to pharyngeal muscle, while EAT-18 is found in both pharyngeal muscle and some neurons [[
Fig 4A shows the pharmacological comparison between in vitro Cel-EAT-2, Asu-EAT-2, and in vivo A. suum pharyngeal recordings. The agonist rank order series acquired from both in vivo and in vitro recordings in A. suum revealed a similar pharmacological profile. Both nicotine and cytisine were highly efficacious in in vivo and in vitro recordings in A. suum, while DMPP acted as a weak agonist. In comparison, the Cel-EAT-2 channel failed to respond to cytisine and DMPP application but was activated by oxantel (I
Graph: Fig 4 Comparative pharmacological profile of agonists on in vivo and in vitro pharyngeal receptors.(A) Comparative pharmacology of agonists for Cel-EAT-2 receptor expressed in vitro, Asu-EAT-2 receptor expressed in vitro, and in vivo pharyngeal recording in A. suum. Inset: Images of source nematode (C. elegans and A. suum) and corresponding recording techniques (TEVC recordings from X. laevis oocytes and current-clamp recordings from intact A. suum pharynx). (B) Effect of different EAT-18 homologs on the pharmacology of the Cel-EAT-2 receptor. Concentration-response curves showing comparison for nicotine application on Cel-EAT-2 + Cel-EAT-18c mix (black curve), Cel-EAT-2 + Cel-EAT-18c + Asu-RIC-3 (blue curve) and Cel-EAT-2 + Asu-EAT-18 + Asu-RIC-3 mix (green curve). Bar graphs showing a significant effect of using different EAT-18 proteins with Cel-eat-2 on pEC50 (top graph) and on the maximum response (bottom graph) produced by application of 300 μM nicotine. ***P < 0.001, ****P < 0.0001; significantly different as indicated; Tukey's multiple comparison tests.
We expected to see differences in nAChR pharmacology between A. suum and C. elegans due to differences in the amino acid residues of the EAT-2 protein sequences. EAT-2 cannot form a functional receptor on its own and requires EAT-18. To determine the pharmacological relevance of EAT-18, we expressed Cel-EAT-2 with Asu-EAT-18. We tested five agonists on the expressed channel: ACh, nicotine, cytisine, levamisole, tribendimidine, and pyrantel (S9A Fig). No significant differences were observed in the rank order series. Interestingly, the sensitivity of nicotine was affected, illustrating a change in the pharmacology (Fig 4B). Substitution of Asu-EAT-18 for Cel-EAT-18c shifted the concentration-response curve to the left and increased the efficacy of nicotine on the receptor. The EC
EAT-18 is required for functional in vitro expression of EAT-2 and modulates its pharmacological properties. McKay et al. [[
Graph: Fig 5 EAT-2 and EAT-18 form a receptor complex.(A) Immunostained oocyte sections showing expression of Cel-EAT-2-GFP (red fluorescence; n = 4) on the surface membrane when injected alone. (B) Cel-EAT-18-His (n = 4) fails to localize on the surface membrane when injected alone. (c) Double immunostained sections of Xenopus laevis oocytes showing Cel-EAT-2-GFP and Cel-EAT-18-His (n = 6) on the surface membrane. The overlay image (yellow fluorescence) shows the co-localization of both the proteins. (D) Double immunostained sections of un-injected (negative control; n = 6) Xenopus laevis oocytes. (E) Western blot analysis of Xenopus oocyte extracts. Un-injected oocytes served as a negative control. Cel-EAT-2-GFP was immunostained with anti-GFP antibodies and was present in the extracts prepared from oocytes co-injected with Cel-EAT-18-His as well as oocytes injected with Cel-EAT-2-GFP alone. Cel-EAT-18-His was immunostained with anti-His antibodies and was present in the extracts prepared from oocytes co-injected with Cel-EAT-2-GFP. ✶, ✣: non-specific interacting protein bands labeled by anti-GFP and anti-his antibodies, respectively, served as a positive control. (F) Co-immunoprecipitation experiments revealed Cel-EAT-18 directly interacts with EAT-2 and constitute part of the receptor complex. Cel-EAT-2-GFP was immunoprecipitated using anti-GFP, followed by Western blot analysis of Cel-EAT-18-His using anti-His antibodies. Un-injected oocytes and oocytes injected with Cel-EAT-2-GFP alone served as negative controls for co-immunoprecipitation experiments. ✶: non-specific interacting protein bands labeled by anti-GFP and anti-his antibodies, respectively, served as a positive control. (G) Schematic representation for physical interaction between EAT-2 and EAT-18.
We further assessed the expression of the Cel-EAT-2 channel by Western blot analysis of oocyte protein extracts. Using antibodies that recognize GFP and His tags, we detected Cel-EAT-2-GFP as a 62 kDa and Cel-EAT-18c-His as a 10 kDa protein (Fig 5E and S10A Fig). We were able to detect Cel-EAT-2 in membrane extracts prepared from oocytes co-injected with Cel-EAT-2 and Cel-EAT-18c as well as oocytes injected with Cel-EAT-2 alone. In contrast, Cel-EAT-18c was only present in membrane extracts prepared from oocytes co-injected with both Cel-EAT-2 and Cel-EAT-18c. We did detect Cel-EAT-18c in whole oocyte extracts when Cel-EAT-18c was injected alone. It is plausible that EAT-18 requires EAT-2 for trafficking to the surface membrane, and its role is more complicated than a simple ancillary protein; perhaps related to the functionality of the mature receptor.
Although Cel-EAT-18c was co-localized with Cel-EAT-2 on the surface membrane of the oocytes and modulated the pharmacology of pharyngeal nAChR, it did not prove the molecular interaction. Therefore, we performed co-immunoprecipitation experiments to explore a possible direct interaction between Cel-EAT-18c and Cel-EAT-2 (Fig 5F and S10B Fig). We were able to demonstrate that Cel-EAT-18c-His co-immunoprecipitated with Cel-EAT-2-GFP, which shows that EAT-18 directly interacts with EAT-2 and is a part of the mature receptor complex (Fig 5G).
nAChRs are vital components of the metazoan neuromuscular junction and essential targets for anti-parasitic interventions. They are typically composed of 5 subunits, including at least 2 α subunits. Here we describe for the first time a non-α nAChR subunit that can form a functional homomeric cation selective receptor when coexpressed with Cel-EAT-18. Even though EAT-2 lacks the essential vicinal cysteines in loop-C, the pharyngeal subunit contains most of the residues that form the "aromatic box" of the α-7 ligand binding site [[
Cel-EAT-18 functions as an obligate auxiliary protein and modifies the pharmacological properties of this cys-loop ion channel. Sevderal previously characterized nAChRs require ancillary proteins, either RIC-3 alone or in combination with UNC-50 and UNC-74, for successful in vitro expression [[
Identification of a suitable target and its validation is one of the most important steps in developing a new drug. An ideal anthelmintic target should meet certain criteria in order to be considered relevant for pharmacological intervention; important physiological function, conservation across parasite species and pharmacological divergence from host receptors. Parasite nAChRs are regarded as popular targets because they contribute to vital physiological functions. Additionally, their diversity, conserved structure among various species of nematodes, and distinct pharmacology from mammalian orthologues make them "druggable". The pharynx is a muscular organ required for feeding in nematodes. While the nematode pharynx has been exploited as a target tissue for the avermectins (GluCls) [[
The pharyngeal cys-loop ligand-gated ion channel formed by EAT-2 meets the criteria for a suitable anthelmintic drug target [[
Plasmid constructs (Life Technologies Inc., USA) containing C. elegans EAT-2 (Accession number: Y48B6.4) & EAT-18 (Accession number: isoform-c—Y105E8A.7c.1 and isoform-d -Y105E8A.7d.1) were cloned into XhoI and ApaI restriction sites of the pTB-207 expression vector using In-Fusion cloning kit (Takara Bio USA, Inc.; EAT-2: 5' end—TGGCGGCCGctcgagATGACCTTGAAAATCGCATTTTTCA and 3' end—ATCAAGCTCgggcccTTATTCAATATCAACAATCGGACTAT; EAT-18: 5' end–TGGCGGCCGctcgagATGCGAAGCCTGGAGCGAAT and 3' end—ATCAAGCTCgggcccTCAAAGTGTTGATCGCATTTCCTCA). For biochemistry and immunofluorescence assays, Cel-EAT-2 was tagged with GFP in between the transmembrane regions 3 and 4 between leucine 377 and 378; EAT-18 was tagged with the 6xHis tag at the C-terminal. Full-length sequences of A. suum EAT-2 (Accession number: GS_09411) and EAT-18 were amplified from total RNA extracted from the dissected whole pharynx of A. suum. Briefly, TRIzol Reagent (Life Technologies Inc., USA) was used to extract total RNA from A. suum adult worms. cDNA was synthesized by using SuperScript VILO Master Mix (Life Technologies Inc., USA) and served as a template for the amplification. Full-length product was sub-cloned into pTB207 expression vector by adding XhoI and ApaI restriction enzyme sites respectively to the forward primer (5' end: TGGCGGCCGctcgagATGCAAATATTTTCTATGGTAATT) and reverse primers (3' end: ATCAAGCTCgggcccTTAATTCCATACGTTTGGGG) using In-Fusion cloning. Z-competent E. coli JM109 cells (Zymo Research, USA) were used for the transformation of the ligated product. The final cloned constructs of all the plasmids were sequenced with pTB207 vector primers (forward, T7) and (reverse, SP6). Only positive clones were used for cRNA synthesis using in vitro transcription with the mMessage mMachine T7 transcription kit (Life Technologies Inc., USA), and the cRNA was aliquoted and stored at -80°C.
Oocyte injections and two-electrode electrophysiology recordings were performed as previously described [[
A. suum pharyngeal dissections and electrophysiology recordings were adapted from Martin [[
GraphPad Prism 8.0 software (GraphPad Software Inc., USA) was used to analyze the data. In two-electrode voltage-clamp recordings, the peak currents were measured and normalized to 100 μM ACh response and expressed as mean ± S.E.M. The data for sigmoid concentration-response curves were fitted to the Hill equation [[
In current-clamp recordings, the peak changes in membrane conductance (δG
Oocytes were prepared for confocal imaging following the previously published protocol [[
Oocyte protein extraction and Western blot analysis protocol were adapted from Lin-Moshier & Merchant [[
Xenopus laevis oocytes were processed as described previously; anti-GFP-Trap-A beads (ChromoTek, Germany) were used for immunoprecipitation [[
S1 Fig. Amino acid sequence alignment of Cel-EAT-2, Asu-EAT-2, and human-α7 nAChR subunits.
The signal peptide (olive green), ACh-binding loops A–C (purple), cys-loop (orange), and transmembrane regions TM1–TM4 (light blue) are indicated. The vicinal cysteines (grey box) are absent in the C-binding loop of the EAT-2 protein. The conserved ligand binding residues of human-α7 subunits are highlighted in blue color in loops A-C and in maroon color in loops D-F. The residues not conserved in EAT-2 proteins are in grey boxes in the loops. The negatively charged acid residues flanking the transmembrane-2 region are highlighted in orange.
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S2 Fig. Comparison of EAT-18 protein sequences and genomic organization.
(A) Amino acid sequence alignment of Asu-EAT-18, Cel-EAT-18c, and Cel-EAT-18d. The predicted transmembrane domain is highlighted in blue. (B) Genomic organization of lev-10 and eat-18 (WormBase ParaSite). Purple boxes indicate coding regions; dark purple boxes represent 5' and 3' untranslated region of the transcript. The first exon of the eat-18 is contained in the first intron of lev-10. The second exon of eat-18 isoform c is spliced to the second exon of lev-10 by using a different frame, which ends 16 bp after the splice site. The second exon of eat-18 isoform c is spliced to the third exon. (C) Predicted transmembrane topology of Cel-EAT-18c using Phobius.
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S3 Fig. Pharmacology of the Cel-EAT-2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor expressed in Xenopus oocytes.
(A) Representative traces of methacholine and butyrylcholine concentration-response relationships on the Cel-EAT-2 receptor. (B) Representative traces & acetylcholine concentration-response curves for Cel-EAT-2 receptor in the presence of 10 μM derquantel (der, n = 6) and 30 μM paraherquamide (para, n = 6). The pEC
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S4 Fig. Representative traces of current-clamp recordings from the pharynx of A. suum showing the pharmacological effect of selected agonists.
(A) Representative trace showing the conductance changes produced in response to the application of selected nicotinic agonists and cholinergic anthelmintics. (B) Representative trace showing concentration-dependent effects on the depolarization to the application of increasing concentrations of acetylcholine. (C) Representative trace showing concentration-dependent effects on the depolarization to the application of increasing concentrations of nicotine.
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S5 Fig. Representative traces of current-clamp recordings from the pharynx of A. suum showing the pharmacological effect of selected antagonists.
The traces show a reduction in acetylcholine (10 and 100 μM) induced depolarizations in the presence of antagonists (30μM).
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S6 Fig. Pharmacological characterization of nAChRs expressed in the pharynx of A. suum.
Functional profile of selected vertebrate nAChR antagonists (30μM) producing % inhibition of 100μM ACh membrane conductance (δG; expressed as mean ± SEM, %) in the A. suum pharynx: d-Tubocurarine (d-TC; 94.6±0.2) > mecamylamine (mec; 92.2±1.9) > methyllycaconitine (MLA; 62.6±3.7) > paraharquamide (para; 37.2±8.7) > derquantel (der; 30.6±7.0) > hexamethonium (hexa; 26.8±1.9) > dihydro-β-erythroidine (DHβE; 17.9±5.0).
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S7 Fig. Pharmacology of the Asu-EAT-2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor expressed in Xenopus oocytes.
(A) Current sizes (mean ± S.E.M) produced in response to 100 μM acetylcholine on Asu-EAT-2 nAChR. Black bar: Asu-EAT-2 + Asu-EAT-18 + Asu-RIC-3 (n = 11). Olive green bar: Asu-EAT-2 + Asu-EAT-18 + Asu-RIC-3 + Asu-UNC-50 + Asu-UNC-74 (n = 6). Asu-EAT-2 and Asu-EAT-18 did not form a functioning receptor on their own. Un-injected oocytes were used as a negative control. Black boxes indicate the presence of corresponding cRNA, and empty boxes indicate the absence of cRNA in the mix. (B) Representative traces of rank order series for nAChR agonists and anthelmintics on Asu-EAT-2 nAChR; nicotine (nic), cytisine (cyt), levamisole (lev), bephenium (bep), dimethylphenylpiperazinium (DMPP), oxantel (oxa), epibatidine (epi), choline (cho), thenium (the), tribendimidine (tri), pyrantel (pyr) morantel (mor). (C) Representative trace of acetylcholine concentration-response relationship for Asu-EAT-2 nAChR. (D) Representative trace showing inhibition of acetylcholine mediated currents by the selected antagonists (30 μM); d-tubocurarine (d-TC), dihydro-β-erythroidine (DhβE), mecamylamine (mec), methyllycaconitine (MLA), hexamethonium (hexa) and derquantel (der).
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S8 Fig. Localization of Asu-eat-2 and Asu-eat-18 mRNA in somatic muscle cells of the A. suum worm.
Single-cell RT-PCR of Asu-eat-2 (lanes 2, 6), Asu-eat-18 (lanes 3, 7) and gapdh control (lanes 4,8) in somatic muscle cells (n = 10). Lane 1, FastRuler High Range DNA ladder; negative control- no-template controls for Asu-eat-2 (lane-6), Asu-eat-18 (lanes 7) and gapdh (lane-8).
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S9 Fig. Effect of different EAT-18 homologs on pharmacology of the Cel-EAT-2 receptor.
(A) Representative trace and bar graph showing functional profile of agonists (100 μm; except tribendimidine, 30 μm) on Cel-EAT-2 + Asu-EAT-18 + Asu-RIC-3 mix; nicotine (nic), cytisine (cyt), levamisole (lev), bephenium (bep), tribendimidine (tri), pyrantel (pyr). (B) Concentration-response curves for acetylcholine application on Cel-EAT-2 + Cel-EAT-18c mix (black curve), Cel-EAT-2 + Cel-EAT-18c + Asu-RIC-3 (blue curve) and Cel-EAT-2 + Asu-EAT-18 + Asu-RIC-3 mix (green curve). (C) Bar graphs showing significant effect of using different EAT-18 proteins with Cel-eat-2 on pEC
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S10 Fig. Uncropped Western blots.
(A) Uncropped western blots corresponding to Fig 5E. (B) Uncropped western blots corresponding to Fig 5F. Dashed blue regions represent the cropped regions used in the main figures.
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S11 Fig. Protein sequence alignment of the EAT-2 subunit from multiple parasitic nematode species.
The signal peptide (olive green), ACh-binding loops A–C (pink), loops D-F (green), cys-loop (grey), and transmembrane regions TM1–TM4 (blue) are indicated. The conserved ligand binding residues are highlighted in blue color in loops A-C and in maroon color in loops D-F.
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S12 Fig. Amino acid sequence alignment of EAT-18 from multiple parasitic nematode species.
The transmembrane domain is highlighted in blue.
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S1 Table. Rank order potencies of nAChR agonists, antagonists, and cholinergic anthelmintics in A. suum pharyngeal nAChRs observed from our study, A. suum somatic muscle nAChRs and nAChRs of the vertebrate hosts.
ACh (acetylcholine), nic (nicotine), cyt (cytisine), epi (epibaditine), DMPP (dimethylphenylpiperazine), chol (choline), pyr (pyrantel), oxa (oxantel), bep (bephenium), the (thenium), lev (levamisole), met (methyridine), d-TC (d-tubocurarine), mec (mecamylamine), MLA (methyllycaconitine), para (paraherquamide), der (derquantel), hexa (hexamethonium) and DHβE (Dihydro-β-erythroidine).
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S1 Data. Effect of selected muscarinic agonists and antagonists on the A. suum pharynx.
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By Shivani Choudhary; Samuel K. Buxton; Sreekanth Puttachary; Saurabh Verma; Gunnar R. Mair; Ciaran J. McCoy; Barbara J. Reaves; Adrian J. Wolstenholme; Richard J. Martin and Alan P. Robertson
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